By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they’d follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. In 326 B.C., Alexander met King Porus of Paurava at the Hydaspes River. By age 30, he controlled an empire that spanned from Greece to India. We meet the Macedonian prince who was naturally inquisitive and fascinated by science and exploration, as well as the man who enjoyed the arts and used Homer’s great epic the Iliad as a bible. has yet a fourth version, this time with the two exchanging introductions: "I am Alexander the great king." He planned to lead part of his forces back by land, while the rest in perhaps 100 to 150 ships under the command of Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, made a voyage of exploration along the Persian Gulf. Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Macedonian laughter caused the experiment to founder, and Alexander abandoned it. Leaving Parmenio in Syria, Alexander advanced south without opposition until he reached Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for two months, and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. It was probably in connection with a general order now sent out to the Greeks to honour Hephaestion as a hero that Alexander linked the demand that he himself should be accorded divine honours. His death—and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard to create. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Crossing the Oxus, he sent his general Ptolemy in pursuit of Bessus, who had meanwhile been overthrown by the Sogdian Spitamenes. From Halicarnassus, Alexander headed north to Gordium, home of the fabled Gordian knot, a group of tightly-entwined knots yoked to an ancient wagon. At ...read more, Alexander Graham Bell, best known for his invention of the telephone, revolutionized communication as we know it. “I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.” ― … Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he was later mutilated after the Persian manner (losing his nose and ears); in due course he was publicly executed at Ecbatana. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia. He was an impassioned champion of a strong federal government, and played a key role in defending ...read more, 1. Just 20 years old, Alexander claimed the Macedonian throne and killed his rivals before they could challenge his sovereignty. The film's original screenplay derived in part from the book Alexander the Great, published in 1973 by the University of Oxford historian Robin Lane Fox. Macedonian garrisons were left in Corinth, Chalcis, and the Cadmea (the citadel of Thebes). READ MORE: Did Alexander the Great Arrange His Father's Murder? Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Sacred Band of Thebes. Sort by: Top Voted. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. But after Alexander took a firm stand and replaced Macedonian officers and troops with Persians, his army backed down. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but Alexander kept mum about the experience. Alexander instructed his men to build a causeway to reach Tyre. Alexander’s forces were greatly outnumbered in men but not in experience or the determination for revenge and to claim Persia’s great wealth, much of it plundered. He murdered Cleitus, one of his most-trusted commanders, in a drunken quarrel, but his excessive display of remorse led the army to pass a decree convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason. Alexander the Great leading his forces against the retreating Persian army led by Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 bce, detail of a mosaic from the House of the Faun, Pompeii; in the National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy. He also dispatched Heracleides, an officer, to explore the Hyrcanian (i.e., Caspian) Sea. Local opposition led Nearchus to set sail in September (325), and he was held up for three weeks until he could pick up the northeast monsoon in late October. He then marched south, recovered a wavering Thessaly, and at an assembly of the Greek League of Corinth was appointed generalissimo for the forthcoming invasion of Asia, already planned and initiated by Philip. Parmenio was also left behind in Media to control communications; the presence of this older man had perhaps become irksome. In 336 B.C., Alexander’s father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed). Alexander the Great, the Cardinal mode is dominant here and indicates a predisposition to action, and more exactly, to impulsion and to undertake: you are very keen to implement the plans you have in mind, to get things going and to create them. Little is known about Alexander’s three-year tutelage but ...read more, In the ancient world, the young and dashing Alexander the Great led his army from northern Greece to what is now Pakistan, leading from the front, killing enemies with sword and spear, ordering executions and massacres, even stabbing one old friend to death in a drunken rage. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. Susa, the capital, also surrendered, releasing huge treasures amounting to 50,000 gold talents; here Alexander established Darius’s family in comfort. Alexander pursued the defeated Persian forces for 35 miles to Arbela, but Darius escaped with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media. Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of supposed good counsel. The Macedonian army resented Alexander’s attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. In autumn 324 Hephaestion died in Ecbatana, and Alexander indulged in extravagant mourning for his closest friend; he was given a royal funeral in Babylon with a pyre costing 10,000 talents. Alexander the Great. Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. The event marked a step in Alexander’s progress toward Eastern absolutism, and this growing attitude found its outward expression in his use of Persian royal dress. The Siege of Tyre (332 BCE). Ancient History Encyclopedia. In early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leader—in fact, he never lost a battle in his life. His empire spread from Gibraltar to the Punjab, and he made Greek the lingua franca of his world, the language that helped spread early Christianity. Alexander is a 2004 epic historical drama film based on the life of the Ancient Macedonian general and king Alexander the Great. At 6.60, D.L. After conquering cities, Alexander the Great would name them after himself. His advance through Swāt and Gandhāra was marked by the storming of the almost impregnable pinnacle of Aornos, the modern Pir-Sar, a few miles west of the Indus and north of the Buner River, an impressive feat of siegecraft. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli. Alexander the Great conquers Persia. Two years later he commanded the left wing at the Battle of Chaeronea, in which Philip defeated the allied Greek states, and displayed personal courage in breaking the Sacred Band of Thebes, an elite military corps composed of 150 pairs of lovers. This policy of racial fusion brought increasing friction to Alexander’s relations with his Macedonians, who had no sympathy for his changed concept of the empire. Half the army with the baggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas, both cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass, while he himself led the rest, together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. The exploits of the Ten Thousand, Greek soldiers of fortune, and of Agesilaus of Sparta, in successfully campaigning in Persian territory had revealed the vulnerability of the Persian empire. Alexander the Great in the Qur'an From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Alexander in the Qur'an) This article does not cite any references or sources. This army was to prove remarkable for its balanced combination of arms. Alexander the Great became king of Macedonia at age 19. The virtues of war is a novel on Alexander The Great produced by Stephen press field. Alexander Knew How to Crush a Rebellion. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. At Phrada in Drangiana (either near modern Nad-e ʿAli in Seistan or farther north at Farah), he at last took steps to destroy Parmenio and his family. He now seems to have become convinced of the reality of his own divinity and to have required its acceptance by others. Alexander in the Qur'an is a theory that holds… Alexander was born in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia in July 356 BC. This examination of Alexander The… This ruthless action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander’s position relative to his critics and those whom he regarded as his father’s men. By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s homosexual male lovers. The provinces became independent kingdoms, and the generals, following Antigonus’s lead in 306, took the title of king. Our mission is to provide a free, world-class education to anyone, anywhere. Philotas, Parmenio’s son, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, was implicated in an alleged plot against Alexander’s life, condemned by the army, and executed; and a secret message was sent to Cleander, Parmenio’s second in command, who obediently assassinated him. Moreover, he needed the wealth of Persia if he was to maintain the army built by Philip and pay off the 500 talents he owed. It was directed by Oliver Stone and starred Colin Farrell. He became king upon his father's death in 336 BCE and went on to conquer most of the known world of his day. His parents were Philip II of Macedon and his wife Olympias. His body, diverted to Egypt by Ptolemy, the later king, was eventually placed in a golden coffin in Alexandria. Fed up with Alexander’s new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements. How much Alexander knew of India beyond the Hyphasis (probably the modern Beas) is uncertain; there is no conclusive proof that he had heard of the Ganges. He is also said to have sent an expedition to discover the causes of the flooding of the Nile. The horse became his battle companion for most of Alexander’s life. In June Alexander fought his last great battle on the left bank of the Hydaspes. The Battle of Issus. Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity. Following up Nearchus’s voyage, he now founded an Alexandria at the mouth of the Tigris and made plans to develop sea communications with India, for which an expedition along the Arabian coast was to be a preliminary. Livius.org. Both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities he received divine honours. Yes, that Aristotle. Mosaic of Alexander the Great discovered in the House of the Faun, Pompeii, Italy. During his … He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip’s murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. Returning to Macedonia by way of Delphi (where the Pythian priestess acclaimed him “invincible”), he advanced into Thrace in spring 335 and, after forcing the Shipka Pass and crushing the Triballi, crossed the Danube to disperse the Getae; turning west, he then defeated and shattered a coalition of Illyrians who had invaded Macedonia. This allowed for Hellenistic culture to become widespread. A year later Philip divorced Olympias, and, after a quarrel at a feast held to celebrate his father’s new marriage, Alexander and his mother fled to Epirus, and Alexander later went to Illyria. In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized command. The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded; but the Persian line broke, and Alexander’s victory was complete. He rejected a plea from Darius for peace and took the towns of Byblos and Sidon. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. On reaching Patala, located at the head of the Indus delta, he built a harbour and docks and explored both arms of the Indus, which probably then ran into the Rann of Kachchh. Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander’s interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy. After surviving battle after fierce battle, Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. With a good cavalry force Alexander could expect to defeat any Persian army. All Rights Reserved. There was an open mutiny involving all but the royal bodyguard; but when Alexander dismissed his whole army and enrolled Persians instead, the opposition broke down. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia. He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. All Parmenio’s adherents were now eliminated and men close to Alexander promoted. Almost immediately after his death in 323 BC, … Updates? In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. In 336, however, on Philip’s assassination, Alexander, acclaimed by the army, succeeded without opposition. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. The army was accompanied by surveyors, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials, and historians; from the outset Alexander seems to have envisaged an unlimited operation. He spent the winter organizing Egypt, where he employed Egyptian governors, keeping the army under a separate Macedonian command. Corrections? In reconciliation Alexander married her, and the rest of his opponents were either won over or crushed. But in pitched battle the striking force was the cavalry, and the core of the army, should the issue still remain undecided after the cavalry charge, was the infantry phalanx, 9,000 strong, armed with 13-foot spears and shields, and the 3,000 men of the royal battalions, the hypaspists. Darius’s Greek mercenaries were largely massacred, but 2,000 survivors were sent back to Macedonia in chains. The story is an epic that is as daring and ambitious as its subject, a relentless conqueror who by the age of 32 had amassed the greatest empire the world had ever seen. At Susa Alexander held a feast to celebrate the seizure of the Persian empire, at which, in furtherance of his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians into one master race, he and 80 of his officers took Persian wives; he and Hephaestion married Darius’s daughters Barsine (also called Stateira) and Drypetis, respectively, and 10,000 of his soldiers with native wives were given generous dowries. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Before continuing his pursuit of Darius, who had retreated into Bactria, he assembled all the Persian treasure and entrusted it to Harpalus, who was to hold it at Ecbatana as chief treasurer. He thereupon prepared to use all methods of siegecraft to take it, but the Tyrians resisted, holding out for seven months. In 14 days Alexander marched 240 miles from Pelion (near modern Korçë, Albania) in Illyria to Thebes. Crushing the mountain tribe of the Ouxians, he now pressed on over the Zagros range into Persia proper and, successfully turning the Pass of the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes, he entered Persepolis and Pasargadae. The vast Eurasian empire that Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.) Recrossing the Hindu Kush, probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander divided his forces. In May 1964, President Lyndon B. Did Alexander the Great Arrange His Father's Murder? Alexander was victorious in the two key battles at Issus and Gaugamela, and Darius was murdered by conspirators soon afterward. The Sogdians found a refuge at the pinnacle of a rock and refused Alexander’s demand to surrender. The evidence is carefully reviewed by Daniel Ogden in an article in the volume Alexander the Great: A New History (edd. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections. There was much speculation about the cause of death, and the most popular theories claim that he either contracted malaria or typhoid fever or that he was poisoned. (March 2007) Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. The people welcomed him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrendered. When Alexander was 13, Philip called on the great philosopher Aristotle to tutor his son. From Phrada, Alexander pressed on during the winter of 330–329 up the valley of the Helmand River, through Arachosia, and over the mountains past the site of modern Kābul into the country of the Paropamisadae, where he founded Alexandria by the Caucasus. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! Rathbone Professor Emeritus of Ancient History and Classical Archaeology, University of Liverpool. Between 326 and 324 over a third of his satraps were superseded and six were put to death, including the Persian satraps of Persis, Susiana, Carmania, and Paraetacene; three generals in Media, including Cleander, the brother of Coenus (who had died a little earlier), were accused of extortion and summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried, and executed. When Alexander turned 13, his father looked for a tutor … In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern Herāt). to King Philip II and Queen Olympias—although legend had it his father was none other than Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods. His vast empire stretched east into India. For more than two centuries, the Achaemenid Empire of Persia ruled the Mediterranean world. He married her despite her Sogdian heritage and she joined him on his journey. Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he was poisoned. Now We May Know Why. He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period, from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced. In winter 334–333 Alexander conquered western Asia Minor, subduing the hill tribes of Lycia and Pisidia, and in spring 333 he advanced along the coastal road to Perga, passing the cliffs of Mount Climax, thanks to a fortunate change of wind. Left in charge of Macedonia in 340 during Philip’s attack on Byzantium, Alexander defeated the Maedi, a Thracian people. (Interestingly enough within the territories ruled by Attila his image is that a wise and benevolent monarch.) Although Alexander has been known as The Great to Europeans, to Persians his image was more like that of Attila the Hun among Western Europeans. https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/alexander-the-great. In the winter of 324 Alexander carried out a savage punitive expedition against the Cossaeans in the hills of Luristan. When Miletus, encouraged by the proximity of the Persian fleet, resisted, Alexander took it by assault, but, refusing a naval battle, he disbanded his own costly navy and announced that he would “defeat the Persian fleet on land,” by occupying the coastal cities. Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia. From age 13 to 16 he was taught by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who inspired his interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation. Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont with about 40,000 Greek soldiers. He was inspiration for later conquerors such as Hannibal the From Gordium he pushed on to Ancyra (modern Ankara) and thence south through Cappadocia and the Cilician Gates (modern Külek Boğazi); a fever held him up for a time in Cilicia. Not one to take “no” for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. Alexander the Great Died Mysteriously at 32. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. After relentless pursuit by Alexander, Bessus’s troops handed Bessus over to Ptolemy, Alexander’s good friend, and he was mutilated and executed. While most would imagine the death of an ancient king as renowned as Alexander the Great to have been solemn event, the truth is a little more macabre. Alexander the Great takes power. To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet. Alexander the Great's conquests freed the West from the menace of Persian rule and spread Greek civilization and culture into Asia and Egypt. Alexander III the Great, the King of Macedonia and conqueror of the Persian Empire is considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all times. At Memphis Alexander sacrificed to Apis, the Greek term for Hapi, the sacred Egyptian bull, and was crowned with the traditional double crown of the pharaohs; the native priests were placated and their religion encouraged. Alexander of Macedonia. There is no basis for the tradition that he turned aside to visit Jerusalem. But Persia’s rule as a ...read more, Born into obscurity in the British West Indies, Alexander Hamilton made his reputation during the Revolutionary War and became one of America’s most influential Founding Fathers. “She ...read more. Livius.org. From his accession Alexander had set his mind on the Persian expedition. In reply to a letter from Darius offering peace, Alexander replied arrogantly, recapitulating the historic wrongs of Greece and demanding unconditional surrender to himself as lord of Asia. While there’s some controversy over whether Bell was the true ...read more, For almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. Later in the same year he attacked Oxyartes and the remaining barons who held out in the hills of Paraetacene (modern Tajikistan); volunteers seized the crag on which Oxyartes had his stronghold, and among the captives was his daughter, Roxana. Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him. One of history’s first true super powers, the Persian Empire stretched from the borders of India down through Egypt and up to the northern borders of Greece. Alexander the Great of Macedon Biography. From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom through the military conquests of the New ...read more, The Great Society was an ambitious series of policy initiatives, legislation and programs spearheaded by President Lyndon B. Johnson with the main goals of ending poverty, reducing crime, abolishing inequality and improving the environment. From Alexandria he marched along the coast to Paraetonium and from there inland to visit the celebrated oracle of the god Amon (at Sīwah); the difficult journey was later embroidered with flattering legends. In 2019, Dr. Katherine Hall of New Zealand’s University of Otago presented the … If Plutarch’s figure of 120,000 men has any reality, however, it must include all kinds of auxiliary services, together with muleteers, camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers, entertainers, women, and children; the fighting strength perhaps stood at about 35,000. From Issus Alexander marched south into Syria and Phoenicia, his object being to isolate the Persian fleet from its bases and so to destroy it as an effective fighting force. At this point Alexander benefitted from the sudden death of Memnon, the competent Greek commander of the Persian fleet. When Alexander … There he broke the opposition of the Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursued them into the interior. He also took two more wives for himself. This victory exposed western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hastened to open their gates. On the Hyphasis he erected 12 altars to the 12 Olympian gods, and on the Hydaspes he built a fleet of 800 to 1,000 ships. In the 2,000 years after his early death, his influence has persisted, military leaders from Caesar to Napoleon studied his … The fall in the level of the sea was interpreted as a mark of divine favour by Alexander’s flatterers, including the historian Callisthenes. The other Greek states were cowed by this severity, and Alexander could afford to treat Athens leniently. He founded the city of Alexandria near the western arm of the Nile on a fine site between the sea and Lake Mareotis, protected by the island of Pharos, and had it laid out by the Rhodian architect Deinocrates. The cities perforce complied, but often ironically: the Spartan decree read, “Since Alexander wishes to be a god, let him be a god.”. Philip, Alexander's father, bought a horse called Bucephalus for the exorbitant price of 13 talents (1 talent = 27 kg of gold), but the rambunctious animal bucked all comers. In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae (modern Rayy, near Tehrān) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. His interest in sound technology was deep-rooted and personal, as both his wife and mother were deaf. When Alexander the Great died in Babylon in 323 B.C., his body didn’t begin to show signs of decomposition for a full six days, according to historical accounts. But he was anxious to press on farther, and he had advanced to the Hyphasis when his army mutinied, refusing to go farther in the tropical rain; they were weary in body and spirit, and Coenus, one of Alexander’s four chief marshals, acted as their spokesman. He had grown up to the idea. At age 12, Alexander showed impressive courage when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, an enormous stallion with a furious demeanor. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Darius’s murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. To gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. He also accepted the surrender of Darius’s Greek mercenaries. "use strict";(function(){var insertion=document.getElementById("citation-access-date");var date=new Date().toLocaleDateString(undefined,{month:"long",day:"numeric",year:"numeric"});insertion.parentElement.replaceChild(document.createTextNode(date),insertion)})(); FACT CHECK: We strive for accuracy and fairness. He found that his treasurer, Harpalus, evidently fearing punishment for peculation, had absconded with 6,000 mercenaries and 5,000 talents to Greece; arrested in Athens, he escaped and later was murdered in Crete. Crossing the Hindu Kush northward over the Khawak Pass (11,650 feet [3,550 metres]), Alexander brought his army, despite food shortages, to Drapsaca (sometimes identified with modern Banu [Andarab], probably farther north at Qunduz); outflanked, Bessus fled beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya), and Alexander, marching west to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh [Wazirabad] in Afghanistan), appointed loyal satraps in Bactria and Aria. After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. The following spring at Babylon he received complimentary embassies from the Libyans and from the Bruttians, Etruscans, and Lucanians of Italy; but the story that embassies also came from more distant peoples, such as Carthaginians, Celts, Iberians, and even Romans, is a later invention.
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